Planning Strategies Essay

Planning is the most basic managerial function. It helps managers identify opportunities, anticipate problems, and develop appropriate strategies and tactics. If done properly, planning identifies threats and opportunities, facilitates entrepreneurship and innovations, and fosters learning. Objectives help you attain our goal, establishing an overall strategy or achieving those goals, developing a comprehension hierarchy of plans to integrate and coordinate activities. Strategic planning focuses on the development of an organization’s mission and vision, goals, general strategies, and major resource allocations. Tactical planning focuses on the shorter term detailed decisions regarding what to do, who will do it and how to do it. Tactical planning specifies the actions for implementing strategic plans. Organizational diversification strategies on planning The primary organization level diversification strategies vary from single business strategy to dominant business strategy, related business strategy, and un-related business strategy. The complexity of strategic planning increases as an organization becomes more unrelated in terms of the range of differences in goods and services the firm provides and the differences in the markets it serves. Levels of strategy and planning Corporate level strategy focuses on the activities of various businesses (or product lines) within a parent organization. Business level strategy focuses on the operations and performance of a single business firm or strategic business unit. Functional level strategy focuses on the actions for managing each specialized area. It specifies how each function will contribute to the organizations business level strategies and goals. Strategic Business Level Planning Planning Process:- 1. Develop the organizations vision, mission and goals 2. Diagnose opportunities and threats 3. Diagnose strengths and weaknesses 4. Develop strategies 5. Prepare strategic plan 6. Prepare tactical plans 7. Control and diagnose the results of both strategic and tactical plans 8. Continue planning process

Of mice and men was written in a period when mentally disabled people were treated like outcasts Essay

Of mice and men was written in a period when mentally disabled people were treated like outcasts. They were treated like that simply because they were different. Mental people were thought to be almost like a different species. Black people were considered outcasts because they had different skin-colour to white people. Also women were treated like property that belonged to men. The novel was written during the Great Depression, where jobs and employment were scarce. The USA was quite a poor country back then. Lennie is considered an outcast because he is mentally disabled. Mentally disabled peopled in that time were treated badly. They were locked up and separated from the rest of society. This is known as segregation. They also use to be sterilised. This means that they weren’t allowed to have babies or reproduce. Those are all very horrible. However, lennie was not treated like any other mental people. This is because he has George to look after him, and many other mentally disabled people didn’t have anybody to care for them or to look after them. But Lennie had that someone, and it was George, so that is what’s different about Lennie. In the ranch, however, lennie was considered an outcast. We know this because lennie says to crooks, ‘Ever’body went †¦ slim, George and ever’body. George says I gotta stay here.’ This shows that Lennie is not allowed to go into town like the rest. He’s not considered good enough do anything with the lads. Lennie is not allowed to play games, such as horseshoe, with the others. ‘From outside came the clang of horseshoe†¦ only Lennie was in the barn.’ This shows that while the others played their games lennie was made to stay inside the barn. He is like an outsider or a refugee. Crooks is considered an outcast simply because he is black. In those days, black people were treated very badly. They were treated differently from white people. Black people were often never called by their first names. Crooks is considered an outcast on the ranch because he’s black and isn’t referred to his real name, it’s either ‘crooks’ or ‘nigger’. Crooks also has his pride ‘he is a proud and aloof man’. This means that crooks is not allowed inside the bunk house because he’s black. He’s allowed to play sports outside the bunk house, but not inside it, which is why he had a separate room. ‘I ain’t wanted in the bunk house †¦ cause I’m black.’ This shows the racial issue of how black men did not mix with whites. Crooks is being segregated in this way. That is also another reason why crooks is an outcast. Curley’s wife is presented as an outcast. This is because women in those times were treated as a piece of property by the men. They may have also been treated as a sex object by their husbands; there to cook, clean and have babies. In the ranch Curley’s wife is considered an outcast because she’s a woman. Also she is related to the boss. She is not allowed to play horseshoe or go into town or even talk to anyone. We know that when she was in the barn with lennie, ‘I get lonely†¦ you can talk to people, but I can’t talk to nobody but Curly’. This shows us that everyone else can talk with whom they like, but she can only talk to her husband. In conclusion, 1930’s America is presented as a racist country who thinks black should be separated in terms of class. It is presented as a country that thinks mentally disabled people should be separated from the rest of society. It was also a sexist country who treated women very badly. A very uncivilized country.

Human Resource Management in Innovation (New Zealand) Term Paper

Human Resource Management in Innovation (New Zealand) - Term Paper Example Considering that exit of every key employee costs the company up to $1200 NZD, the organization needs to focus on hiring the best staff. The human resource would rather leave a vacancy open than recruit an unfit employee and even spend more time searching for high-caliber employees. Among the acquired employees, the organization also needs to focus on identifying and retaining the talented and outstanding employees, considering that these employees are in high demand by competitors. This is to ensure that employees who make real difference with regards to performance of the organization are retained (Taylor and Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development, 2002, p.11). The human resource also needs to redesign the orientation program for new staff and ensure recruitment of right persons with the right attitudes and expectations. This is in consideration of the fact that many employees have left due to their belief that the company presented unprofessional old-fashioned image. Many organizations face highest staff attrition rates within the first few months after recruitment. Employees’ first experience with organizations should be positive to enable quick assimilation into the organization and to make them feel proud to have been recruited. First impression transforms to staff morale, which is a major factor that contributes high to staff turnover rates (Bittel and Newstrom, 1992, p.181). The company should seek to improve wages and benefits to employees considering that high rates of staff attrition have resulted from low wages and general benefits to employees. The company needs to allocate more funds to match wages to employees and benefi ts with market rates. Market-based compensation aspects are tied to the recommendations that, instead of making compensation comparisons within the industry alone, the human resources should undertake comparisons with specific competitor markets such as Australia, which absorbs approximately 3500 employees from the New Zealand employment market every month. Skills are not only transferable in industries but also across industries and markets and industries. Compensation and equity of a company needs to be comparable with competitor market rates since unreasonable negative deviation from markets rates would drive away existing employees. Among compensation issues, equity is a vital issue that needs to be balanced with regards to long existing staff and currently hired staff. Long existing staff have the propensity of leaving employment incase incoming staff are paid more proportionally. In addition to market rates compensation and equity, incentives plan such as milestone bonuses and performance awards provide employees with something to anticipate and work hard for.

Feminist Criticism on A Dolls House Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Feminist Criticism on A Dolls House - Essay Example ne analysis of this book, it is notable that Ibsen exposes the suppressive tendencies of a traditional society over a woman and her subsequent struggle at defining her individuality In its immediate impression, Torvald Helmer’s house cannot be described as misogynistic. There is a sense of tranquility that occurs in the house. A superficial judgment may describe Helmer’s marriage as peaceful. Helmer, however, manages the tranquility of the house by suppressing conflicts that may emerge out of Nora’s individuality. It is crucial to highlight that conflicts are essential for comprehensive development of a society. In this sense, conflicts are normal occurrences that help individuals shape better lives for themselves. A household, therefore, that appears not to have conflicts thrives on the suppression of a certain party. In the Helmer’s household, peace only occurs because of Nora’s insolence over matters that affect her wellbeing. The construction of woman in Ibsen’s society is one who is dependent on the husband for her own identity. This exposes a social lie that dominates the 19th century’s household. Nora is the adored beloved wife of Torvald Helmer. On the other hand, Torvald is a rigidly honest and admirable man of stringent moral ideals. Besides, he passionately dedicates his life to his family. According to such a society, he is an enviable husband and, consequently, a good man. Nora, while relying on her societal expectations, believes that she is a fortunate woman to have found husband as modest as Helmer. For a considerable period in her lifetime, Nora does not evaluate the value of her own life. In Nora’s eagerness to serve her husband, she illegally borrows money to take her husband to Italy. Thereafter, she struggles to pay the loan without the husband’s knowledge. Although she has no job, she saves every penny to repay the huge loan. Nora strives to uphold the name o f her family at the cost of her happiness. In this perspective,

( Human Resource Management ) Do Emotional Intelligence and Dissertation

( Human Resource Management ) Do Emotional Intelligence and Leader-Member Exchange affect the job satisfaction & turnover Intent - Dissertation Example It is suggested that further investigation on the arbitrating consequences of Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) and Team-Member Exchange (TMX) on Emotional Intelligence, job satisfaction and job performance is required. 1. Introduction 1.1 Why teams are important? As Thomas Edison once coined, "If we did all the things we were capable of doing, we would literally astound ourselves". According to Katzenbach and Smith, (1993), "A team is a small number of people with complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose, performance goals, and approach for which they are mutually accountable." The team performance curve by Katzenbach and Smith, 1993 Source: Katzenbach and Smith, 1993, Business in today’s world flourishes only because of teams and team work. A team in an organization can actually prevail over almost any complexity to be successful in its objectives when it works with the right attitude. Sometimes difficulties may arise in certain projects then under such circumst ances the determination and cooperation of teams can conquer it and triumph. Under situations of ‘no pressure’ In most projects there will be times when only the determination of the team can overcome the difficulties and carry the initiative through to success. Even when there is no pressure, the team's strength and zeal will be mirrored in the feature of the solution. In reality teams have more flexibility in operations, talents and experience with a good lot of diversity of resources. Leadership in Teams The requirements of team performance lead to team leadership which tilts just about team need contentment so that team efficiency can be built up. Who ever is ready to take up the responsibility and satisfy the needs of a team can be assumed to take up team leadership, irrespective of the fact whether he/she acts from inside the team or outside it (McGrath, 1962). This analysis of team leadership is coherent with functional leadership presumption. Fleishman et al., 1 991; Hackman & Walton, 1986; Zaccaro et al., 2001 also support that functional leadership model of team leadership is the best leader ship model. According to Schutz, (1961: 61) â€Å". . . leader as completer . . . the best a leader can do is to observe which functions are not being performed by a segment of the group and enable this part to accomplish them†. Style of Team Leadership ? Dictatorial style of team leadership is one in which a single person prescribes the result of the team and the remaining people do not contribute towards it at all. This type of leadership is also known as autocratic leadership (Goleman, 2000). In integrative team leadership the sources of the team are taken up together into an incorporated result of the team. In reality this kind of team leader ship is not as simple as it reads. This kind of leadership is a holistic, meditative and receptive approach to conducting oneself, guiding others, and contributing in the organization. Autocratic Style of Leadership This style of leadership involves in giving all the powers to the leader in decision making. The

Postural Changes associated with Pregnancy Literature review

Postural Changes associated with Pregnancy - Literature review Example But the curve of lumbar spine increases for most of the pregnant women during the last three months of pregnancy or a swayback posture is taken up by the body where they lean their upper body backward and the lower spine maintains the same position. Abdominal muscles and pubic bones in front of the pelvis support the weight of growing fetus as the curve of the lower spine increase and in the case of bodies which adopt the swayback position; pelvic ligaments and pelvic floor muscles experience more pressure because here the push is behind pubic bones. Most of the pregnant women keep their head back ward in order to balance their body from the forward pull exerted by the growing abdomen and as a result of which the thoracic spine loses its natural curve. The proximity of uterus to the respiratory diaphragm makes it difficult to take deep breath as the fetus grows and body uses an adjustment mechanism of spreading the lower ribs outward in order to make the process of breathing easier. Yet another change that takes place during pregnancy is in locomotion which is observable mainly during the third trimester. ... e â€Å"faulty body mechanisms† as the reason for back pain associated with pregnancy and according to him body changes its posture during pregnancy â€Å"to compensate for the weight of an enlarging fetus and to offset the progressive anterior displacement of their center of gravity. In so doing, the lumbar spine assumes a more lordotic configuration and the pelvis tilts forward† (Loftus 1996, p. 65). The weight-bearing responsibility is shifted to the posterior articular elements of the vertebral column. Mechanical advantages of the paraspinal muscles and the anterior abdominal wall muscles decreases as result of the pressure exerted on them and stress sacroiliac joints and the pelvis as the fetus grows. Abnormal mechanics of ambulation and lifting are observed as a result of the anatomical configuration changes in the spine and pelvis (Loftus 1996, p. 65). Loftus finds the role of a postural etiology as a support providing factor for most of the pregnancy related bac k pain theories which is contradicted by the hypothesis put forward by Fast et al and Hansson et al where the former support the Fahrni’s postural theory and his observations of absence of back pain in primitive societies where the people maintained a flexed lumbar structure for long periods during the day and the findings of the latter which argues that there is no relationship between back pain and the curvature of vertebral column. On the other hand, there are experts who believe that back pain originates as a result of changes which take place in sacroiliac joints and pelvis during pregnancy and Christopher observes that â€Å"biochemical changes related to increased ligamentous laxity in the symphysis pubis and sacroiliac joints contribute to a sacroiliac pain syndrome† (Loftus 1996, p. 65). Many

Art Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Art - Essay Example He was also heavily influenced by the Post-Impressionists Gauguin and Van Gogh. Picasso was a Spanish artist known as the founder of Cubism. Unlike Matisse, Picasso’s paintings of women are grotesquely distorted. He portrays the woman with darkness and vulgarity. In the early years of the twentieth century, Picasso embarked on a series of paintings using blue palette and melancholy themes. After his Blue Period, came his Rose Period which emphasized a warmer palette and more cheerful themes. Picasso’s works were influenced by Matisse’s works especially with his still life paintings. However, Picasso focused more on form and innovation while Matisse focused more on color and was less abstract. Picasso uses form with symmetry at different angels, geometrics and inspiration from household tools. On the other hand, Matisse always preferred bright colors even in his landscapes. His colors changes from light to dark but its mixtures make it even more creative. Matisse does not have much attention to detail but he adheres to reality unlike Picasso who would usually distort the images of his subjects. The art works of both artists were influenced by each other, more so when they developed a friendly rivalry. One of the more famous works of Picasso is the â€Å"Les Demoiselles d’Avignon† which is an example of his neo-cubism, modernism, and impressionism. This painting shows women who are immensely distorted. Geometric shapes are used instead of curves to portray the bodies of the women. The painting uses dark colors such as brown, black and blue which makes the theme gloomy. Matisse’s â€Å"Joy of Life† on the other hand depicts women more naturally by showing the right curves and proportions. The mood of Matisse’s painting is livelier because of the colors that he used specifically, red, green and yellow. Although both paintings show a group of women, one can clearly see the difference in how they are portrayed b y both artists. Matisse’s â€Å"Joy of Life†, 1905-1906 vs. Picasso’s â€Å"Les Demoiselles d’Avignon†, 1907 Picasso’s â€Å"Vase, bowl & lemon†, 1907 vs. Matisse’s â€Å"Blue Pot and Lemon† , 1897 The paintings above are examples of still life paintings of Picasso and Matisse. Unlike other Matisse’s paintings, the colors are quite dull. In contrast, Picasso’s emphasizes the shapes of the objects by using black outlines on the figures. His colors are darker as compared to those of Matisse’s. In Matisse’s painting, the objects seem to blend with its background because of its complimentary colors while in Picasso’s painting, the dark blue and gray background shows a sharp contrast between the colors of the lemon and the vase. Picasso’s â€Å"Acrobat† 1930 vs. Matisse’s â€Å"Acrobats† 1952 The above paintings of both Picasso and Matisse show clearly how they in fluenced each other. The paintings show the different interpretations of the two artists on one subject. Again, we can see Matisse’s love for colors by painting the human body blue in a beige background. On the other hand, Picasso simply used black and white. The two paintings though, both show a distortion of the human body. Works Cited Carver, Reg. Matisse or Picasso. 11 February 2011. Web. 3 May 2011. http://www.findmyowncurrent.com/2011/02/11/matisse-or-picasso/ Edward and Betty Marcus Foundation. Matisse & Picasso. 2001. Web. 3 May 2011

Interesting Excellent topic related to Race in Research and Health Essay

Interesting Excellent topic related to Race in Research and Health care as summarized in reading Articles - Essay Example article, ‘The conceptualization and operationalization of race and ethnicity by health services researchers’ by Susan Moscou, the main focus is on the racial and ethnic variables. It is stated by the author that in the health services research industry, these two variables are the most common terms that are used and experienced by individuals (Moscou, 2008). It was revealed that race and ethnicity illustrated different meanings as both the terms were not operationalized. For this reason, the results showed that the subtext was unclear. Since the sample was from different geographical regions, therefore, the meaning of race and ethnicity in healthcare and research was different to the majority of them (Moscou, 2008). It should be noted that despite of the fact that all the participants had different perspectives and understandings of race and ethnicity, however majority of them believed that the race and ethnicity was a major cause of discrimination, marginalization, socio-economic disparity, etc. in healthcare and research. Similarly, race and ethnicity were also considered as genuine elements that have a major contribution regarding racial discrimination in the society, particularly the healthcare industry. Thus, the article concluded that the race and ethnicity do have negative impacts on the research and healthcare industry in a variety of ways. However, the work done by the author require further studies and advanced researches on the same subject so that the topic is analyzed deeply and in a much brief manner (Moscou, 2008). In the article ‘Racism in the Examination Room: Myths, Realities, and Consequences’ author Jeanette E. South-Paul has emphasized on the fact that the element of race does not have a good social history. To support her argument she has also referenced a few other articles that have also discussed the same idea. For example the article ‘Family medicine’ by Anderson, the core idea is similar to that that Jeanette’s

Research Project case study Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Research Project case study - Assignment Example This affects not only the quality of care but also the cost of care incurred by the organizations. As such, it is important for proper measure to be put in place including team-building measures, to allow proper team collaboration towards patient safety. Adequate conflict prevention and resolution measures are also important towards maintaining a positive relationship among health professionals and the patients. In an interview with Human Resource Manager from UPSON Regional Medical Center, various operational approaches were identified, which have allowed for the success of the organization in knitting its employees together towards one course. However, some measures could be put in place to further advance the relationship between the health professionals and the patients towards attaining patient-oriented quality care, an aspect that would reduce the cost of management through minimizing errors, promoting safety, and enhancing quick response to treatment. The communication mechani sms can also be important in reducing on-show rates; hence, promoting profitability. 2. What challenges are faced in ensuring proper communication between health professional both within and between departments at UPSON Regional Medical Center and what measures have been put in place to uphold proper communication? With increasing advancement in technology within the health care system, different organizations including UPSON Regional Medical Center have embraced clinical information systems that facilitate patient care. It is important to note that the security of patient information is highly important in the health care organizations and thus the different individuals from different departments who make up the teams that manage the patients are faced with an important role in safeguarding patient information(Freshman, Rubino, & Chassiakos, 2010). In some organizations, traditional information safety practices

Technology Used in the Business Environment Research Paper

Technology Used in the Business Environment - Research Paper Example The technology that will be available to business will increase in the coming years. Failure to take advantage of technology provides advantage to the competition. Types of Technology in a Business Environment Table of Contents Section Page Title Page Abstract 1 Table of Contents 2 1.0 Introduction 3 2.0 Mobile Computers 3 3.0 Scanners, Barcode and RFID Devices 4 4.0 IP Video Systems for Monitoring Operation and Security 5 5.0 Voice over Internet Protocol 6 6.0 Conclusion 7 References 8 List of Figure Figure Number Title Page 1 Mobile computer in action 4 2 Scanners as used for inventories 5 3 IP Video Systems 6 Types of Technology in a Business Environment 1.0. Introduction Technology is crucial for war, peace, business, and life. This is the reason why man has abandoned the technology of the bow and arrows to move on to the technology of the nuclear bomb. It is also the rationale why man has to improve his means of communication. Businesses prosper and become competitive only when the most advanced technology is used and life only becomes comfortable when the most advanced technology is tapped. Given the current economic environment of financial crisis where costs have to be tapered down and yet operational efficiency and power must be maintained, technology is a crucial part of the solution for business survival. It is therefore imperative to look into the types of technology that businesses can use to maintain competitiveness, efficiency, and survival if not profitability. In this work, I looked into four types of technology which I believe businesses will have to access if they want to be competitive in their industry. My impression is that the technologies that I will discuss will enable businesses to cut on labor and professional costs while making work and life easier for labor as they make the latter more productive. 2.0. Mobile Computers One type of technology which I consider has been significantly changing the way we conduct businesses are the mobil e computers. Of course, we have witnessed how the laptop enabled an element of the work force to be productive wherever he or she may be. The laptop enabled the businessman to bring anywhere not only his or her organization’s business data but also the means through which data can be analyzed: accounting, financial, planning, and management computer software. A fairly recent development that can be used by businesses is in the area of mobile computers. According to BearCom (2011a, p. 8), the mobile computers are â€Å"making processes more efficient.† BearCom cited several success stories that benefitted from mobile computing. In particular, BearCom cited the case of Huntsman Corporation where â€Å"with real ­-time wireless tracking of rounds activity, the number of pumps requiring daily inspections has been reduced by 50 percent---allowing more time for other crucial inspection areas† (2011, p. 8). Further, according to BearCom (2011, p. 8), with mobile comp uting â€Å"defect elimination work requests are now initiated in the field in real time.† In Figure 1 below, an application of mobile computing is shown where recording, computation of the bill and billing become part of a single step. Figure 1. Mobile computer in action Source: BearCom, 2011, p. 8 It is obvious from Figure 1 that with mobile computing, several processes of business operations can be reduced into a single step thereby reducing costs, promoting productivity, and enhancing efficiency. Obviously, there will savings. There are obviously

Challenges Facing the Graduate Student Essay Example for Free

Challenges Facing the Graduate Student Essay The many challenges that face the potential graduate students may inhibit them from taking that first step to enrolling in graduate school. This paper will focus on personal challenges for this writer and strategies she will use to overcome them. Some challenges for this writer are working full-time, being financially responsible for others while maintaining a mortgage and family responsibilities. Time management and a novice regarding some computer programs also provide other challenges. Many obstacles have to be conquered in an effort to ensure success. Hardin (2008) contends these barriers often put her at a greater risk for being unsuccessful. The purpose for this writer entering graduate study is the hope of expanding her career opportunities to include teaching at the undergraduate level. Her motivation to return to school was two-fold. A divorce and a lengthy recovery following a work-related injury within a year inspired thoughts of facing the future being financially independent and wondering if the recovery would be without limitations to allow a return to bedside nursing. These life changes prompted soul searching and re-motivated this writer to pursue a graduate degree, a goal that had been set several years prior. As a graduate student this writer faces the challenges encompassed with being an adult. Over the past 30 years, there has been an escalation of students, primarily women, entering graduate study. According to Hardin (2008) the motivation for many women to return to school is usually centered on a major life change. These women usually return to college in an effort to support their families. Balancing commitments, such as work, life, school and other responsibilities create a stressor to the student and pose even more challenges. As the sole provider for two children and responsible for other financial costs that entail, this writer works full-time on the nightshift. Traditionally compensation on nightshift is more than traditional work schedules. Although financially this helps alleviate one stress for this writer, another stress is created, lack of sleep. Sleep deprivation, fatigue and sleepiness negatively affect function that often results in decreased productivity (Mulgrew, 2007). This writer believes working nightshift and facing the sleeping challenge poses a potential barrier to success. Based on 2004 statistics, approximately 15% of Americans work nontraditional work schedules (Chung, Wolf, Shapiro, 2009). Adan and Natale (2002) also found that the relationship between gender and shift work support the thought women are more morning types, preferring to retire to sleep earlier and rise sooner, which results in optimal mental performance. This writer believes this to be true of her. In an effort to meet the challenge of time management, she will keep an accurate calendar and prioritize all appointments, work schedule, and other commitments. Blocking out hours of the day to focus on schoolwork as well as ensuring enough sleep while pursuing personal goals such as exercise should encourage quality work. Procrastination is time’s enemy. A few minutes of effective planning will save time in the end. This involves a continual assessment and reassessment of priorities and activities (Spidal, 2009). Financial stressors also affect the graduate student. Hardin (2008) found lack of financial support may actually prevent an adult from enrolling in graduate school. The adult student often differs from the traditional student as her financial needs often include a mortgage and childcare. Working nightshift helps alleviate the financial deficit for this writer as nightshift pays a differential. Many nurses, including myself, will work extra shifts to offset the financial burden. Attending classes may inhibit the overtime opportunity, therefore smaller paychecks add to the existing financial load. A graduate student has to weigh the benefits of an education when after graduation her financial debt will increase (Morgenthaler, 2009). In an effort to minimize the loan amount, this writer researched loans and scholarships. She consulted her employer and found there were a few scholarships available in addition to education reimbursement. The scholarship amounts are monetarily limited. Some also require a commitment to continuing employment for a set number of years per scholarship. Despite these caveats, any amount of money is helpful to decrease the debt as well as ensuring longer employment. Another challenge facing this writer is she has never used PowerPoint in any arena. This may lead to a feeling of inadequacy. To neutralize this deficit she will ensure access to the latest computer programs for her papers, research, or presentation. Ultimately the amount of effort put forth by this writer to achieve desired educational results will depend on her overall motivation and dedication to her goal. Hardin (2008) has found that most graduate students are not prepared academically. This is associated to being away from the academic setting for a prolonged amount of time. Technological skills may be outdated or she may not understand the new computer programs. Conducting research and writing papers at a professional level may also be intimidating to the graduate student (Morgenthaler, 2009). Many challenges face this nontraditional graduate student as she returns to school. Although there are significant obstacles, this writer is optimistic about overcoming these obstacles by using the aforementioned strategies as she successfully completes graduate school.

The importance of automobile industry

The importance of automobile industry CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Introduction In the civilization of 21st century, human beings are not only focused on the basic needs but also pursuit the higher quality life. From the emergence of competitive business world, automobile manufacturers and assemblers needed to be active in order to ensure that consumers have high intention to purchase their products. We can clearly knowing that the people are toward the goal of comfortable and enjoyable life compared those residents in the olden days. Background information of country Malaysia The national car project, PROTON has been initiated with the originally conceived the idea and direct support of the then Prime Minister of Malaysia, Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohamed was incorporate on May 7th, 1983 (http://www.proton.com). The first Proton car, Proton Saga was launched on July 9th, 1985. The present model car includes Gen2, Iswara, Wira, Waja, Savvy, Persona and Perdana. With the support by government, Malaysia has a fairly strong automobile industry. Beside Protons cars, the famous and well known cars also been assembled in Malaysia such as BMW, Honda, Hyundai, Mercedes Benz, Nissan, Toyota, Volvo and etc. The importance of the automobile industry is also evident from its substantial contribution to the government bursary on direct and indirect taxes. It is estimated a total of RM 13.14 billion. A 54% of the total is for the government annual duty excise revenue which approximately RM 7.0956 billion, 33% of sales tax which approximately RM 4.3362 billion, 8% of import duty approximately RM 1.0512 billion and a 5% of corporate tax estimated to be RM 0.657 billion (http://www.proton.com). It the sense, it surely will be the governments interest to see automobile industry in Malaysia to grow further. Malaysia is largest automobile market in ASEANS with 90% of that manufactured or assembled domestically and more than 500,000 vehicles sold annually (Cheng, 2006). It shows that the major market for Malaysia is passenger automobile market. The new vehicle sales for passengers automobile in year 2006 is 90.1% compared with year 1999 is 83.1% (Malaysian Automobile Association, 2009). From year 1999 to year 2006, the highest automobile sales in Malaysia on year 2005 which is 416,692 automobiles. Table 1.1 shows the new vehicle sales in Malaysia from year 1999 2006. In year 1999 to 2006, we can see that Proton market share had decreased from 64.98% to 31.50% in the year 2006. This means that, the well known marques companies had started to penetrate in Malaysia automobile market. Throughout the 8 years, the highest increased in new vehicle sales is Toyota 84.53% follow by Honda 81.82%, third is Mercedes Benz 64.62%, BMW 61.47% and Nissan 59.50%. We can know that marques like BMW, Honda, Mercedes Benz, Nissan and Toyota automobiles sales have been increased from year to year. Beside Proton vehicle, Perodua is also one of the national car projects in Malaysia. They had also been increased in their vehicle sales from year 1999 2006 which is 56.46%. Automobile industry is the key success factor on the economy growth by creating various kinds of jobs in different industry. Due to its growth and backward relation with almost every segment of the economy, the automobile market has a strong and positive multiplier effect and thus propels progress of a nation (http://business.gov.in). Since Malaysia government had invested in national car project to elevate the technologies and to spur the set up of a huge network industry and services to put Malaysia among the few developing countries that are capable of producing a wide range of vehicles. According to Y.B. Dato Mustapa Mohamed Minister of Prime Ministers Department (2004), to compete internationally in automobile industry, we needed to invest in research and development, upgrade the workforce productivity and production efficiency to be competitively priced, be customer focused and provide satisfactory after sale services and to be aggressively promoting their brands to strengthen their market share positions. Beside that, the automobile industry in Malaysia needed to improve on innovations and practicality of designs, better safety features, improving performance, and fuel efficiency and be environment-friendly (Mustapa,Dato, 2004). Consumer are now also considered comfort and the colors are now for standards of driving in all of the world (Mustapa,Dato, 2004). Malaysia government had introduced the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) in automobile industry to revise the sales forecast in order to be more competitively. It is also a way to be greater integration in ASEAN automotive industry; Malaysia will cut down the ASEAN CEPT import duty to 5% for qualifying vehicles (Cheng, 2006). It has been forecast that Proton might facing hard time to competing against tariff-free imports from other ASEANcountries under the agreement (Dilip Singh Mutum, 2003). The famous marques in the world such as Honda, Toyota, BMW and Ford have been put up their manufacturing plant in Thailand for the Malaysia automobile market. The car that have local content at least 40% produced by foreign country may enjoy a preferential import duty (Dilip Singh Mutum, 2003). Background of the Study The automobile industry has become more competitive as the fast trend growing automobile industry in Asia has drawn attention. Asia has been acknowledgement as a potential growth area for the automobile industry. A brands new car publication has led to increased competition, substantial price cuts and lower margins in the automobile industry (Silk Road, 2005). These relationships are not confined to the pursuit of short-term economic imperatives cost reduction but embrace innovations in design and technology, creative research and development and quality improvement and after sale services (Morris, Donnelley Donnelley, 2004). In the competitive automobile industry, competitors have to ensure their products are attracting to the consumers and high perception. The sales of the automobile will enhance the companys growth, profitability and market shares. Many consumers make their purchasing decisions is not always on the products pricing, but is on product characteristics, quality and perception, even between with fast moving consumer good (FMCG) (Veloutsou, Gioulistanis Moutinho, 2004). Some of the producer tends to focus on their own product comparable quality with the international brands, while others give less emphasis on the quality and concentrate on low price products. It is based on their target market. This theory can be converted to products marketed in internationally or locally. The British and German consumers with emphasize to the purchase intention in automobiles, placing particular emphasis on quantifying the relative importance of country-of-origin (Diamantopoulus, Schlegelmilch Du Preez, 1995). Therefore, the product quality will cause induction on consumer by increased their purchase intention attitude towards the brand and willingness of the product. In the advanced and competitive automobile market, consumer perception and purchase intention towards international brand on decision making is well set up. The automobile industries have to continue alter to strengthen their product image with a specific characteristic of the car model. The automobile companies can be fiddle by design via the use of visual elements, which consists of design characteristic to identify a brand and design characteristic for specific models to emphasize individuality (Liem, Zainal Warell, 2009). In automobile industry, under the tremendous pressure of offering a greater product variety at the competitive market pricing, the companies have increasingly employed platform sharing strategy, where different brands and models share the same basic platform (Chen, Kang Hung, 2007). Beside the innovation of the automobiles, after sales service also play an important role to initial the purchase of cars. It would substantially higher in sales and profit margin for the company. It creates substantial opportunities for cross-selling, brand-building, and solidifying customer loyalty. Before a store brand increases customer loyalty, many steps in the process have to be completed (Zielke Dobbelstein, 2007). The customer must know the product, launch some kind of interest, and try the product the first time, become satisfied and then launch a preference which will creates the loyalty of customer (Zielke Dobbelstein, 2007). The marques is currently undertaking a social change with its brands seeming less remote, less different, and less exclusive with high quality of life improving (Anurit, Newman Chansarkar, 1999). With the entire luxury marques brand, it created competitive automobile industry in world wide. The perception of the car image had become the key role in the purchase intention when the quality of the car is continue rising. The premium marques such as Lamborghini, Ferrari, BMW, and Mercedes-Benz must enlarge the attributes and values that reflect changing social values which influence buyers emotionally, in order to maintain their positions in different regions of the global market (Anurit, Newman Chansarkar, 1999). The purpose of this study is to examine consumer perception towards international brand in automobile industry and the factors that affecting the purchase intention on automobile industry towards international brand in Malaysia. It is to understand the perception towards the impact of international brand in automobile industry. Background of Problem Statement In studying the publics perception towards their preferred brand(s), it is important to understand the purchase intention and how does it affects the decision making and understand the factors affecting the purchase intention. Beside that, product image are important and lead to the idea in the marketing strategy. The brand name was the most important quality, followed by price retailer reputation (Agawal, Teas, 2002). These findings are valuable to marketers because they clarify whether or not marketing strategies related to market pricing, brand name, and their retailer reputation, can be standardized across cultures and countries (Agawal, Teas, 2002). The research is on Malaysians perception towards international brand in automobile industry and the affects of purchase intention on automobile in Malaysia. Almost all new car models are structure with brand extensions, capitalizing on current consumer perceptions and positioning the new model within the brand family (Strach Everett, 2006). Most of the Chinese car buyers are making their first automobile purchase and shows the brand loyalty (Silk Road, 2005). In the automobile market, consumers perceptions are more sensitive on the pricing that will affect the purchase intention. On the other hand, the perception towards the impact of international brand in automobile industry is a brand alliance combines the equity of two or more brand names to create a synergistic effect (Rodrique Biswas, 2004). In addition, the variables should be positively affected by the brand alliance (Rodrique Biswas, 2004). The brand names serve as a quality pledge device by wigwag product quality better than the host brand can by itself (Rodrique Biswas, 2004). Korean consumers perception were more strongly influenced by subjective norms rather than their attitudes, while US consumers purchase intentions were more strongly influenced by their attitudes than by the subjective norms (Chung Pysarcik, 2000). Problem Statement In Malaysia, the automobile industries are very competitive and the quantities of automobiles users are increasing every year. Table 1.2 shows the sales of automobiles in Malaysia in year 1999-2003. From the table, we can see that the non-national cars sales have been increasing throughout the five years. We can know that nowadays the peoples are preferred on international brand compared to the past. In year 2003, KIA motor has become one of the national cars in Malaysia. In year 2002 and 2003 total national cars sales have drop about 17% which is 56,920 units. Compared with the International brand cars sales have been increase about 35.7% which is about 16,663 units. However, Malaysias automobile industries still are facing positive and negative factors and impact which will greatly affect the purchase intention in automobile industry toward international brand. Therefore, I would like to do the research on automobile industry in Malaysia. In this research, we will focus and analyze the main 3 problem in this field which is: What is the Malaysians perception towards international brand in automobile industry? What are the factors affecting the purchase intention on automobile industry towards international brand in Malaysia? What is the perception towards the impact of international brand in automobile industry? Research Objective We define the research objective as: To study the Malaysians perception towards international brand in automobile industry. To study the factors affecting the purchase intention on automobile industry towards international brand in Malaysia. To study the perception towards the impact of international brand in automobile industry. Scope of the study This study will focus on all Malaysians especially the students from Multimedia University and working adults / young executives. It will examine the perception towards international brand and the factors affecting the purchase intention and the perception towards the impact of international brand in automobile industry. The study specifically will be focus on the Malaysians perception towards international brand in automobile industry. Significant of the study Through consumer behavior perspective in automobile industry, the research of this study prescribes the assembler and manufacturer with importance information about the perception is contributing to the purchase intention. With globalization, companies compete across borders and cultures. It is important for automobile industry to understand and forecast the perception. In addition, the research will provide a useful tool in developing effective marketing plans. It also provides some insight of Malaysians perceptions that arouse positive attitude towards international brand that will influence the consumers purchase intention. By conducting this research, it will be great to explore the perception towards the impact of international brand in automobile. The research is value added to the theory of purchase intention that it is not only related to locally but also internationally. Through this study, we are able to understand the factors that affecting to purchase intention on automobile towards international brand in Malaysia. Furthermore, this study can be used as a reference in Malaysia automobile industry for policy makers, automobile manufacturer and assemblers. Organization of the Research Report There are five chapters to be organized: Chapter 1 is the introduction of this research. Background of study and background of information country will be explained. Problem Statement and objective of study will be defined in this chapter. In Chapter 2, we will present a review of literature related to the perception of Malaysians towards international brand in automobile industry and the factors affecting the purchase intention on automobile industry towards International brand in Malaysia. This chapter also includes the perception towards the impact of international brand in automobile industry. The Chapter 3, research methodology, which includes the description of research framework used, questionnaire, sampling plan, and data collection method and data analysis. In this chapter, hypothesises will be made. In Chapter 4, we will analysis on the result of research findings. The beginning of the chapter is the background of the respondents. In the following part, reliability analysis will be tested. In the third part, there is included with mean analysis. The fourth is Pearson Correlation Analysis. The last part of Chapter 4 is multiple regressions. Chapter 5 is the contribution and conclusion of the study. The next part is suggestion for future research and limitation of study will be determined. Recommendation for the future study is included. Lastly, conclusion for the whole study will be given. LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction The purpose of the literature review is to provide supporting evidence that is related to the research. This chapter discusses the relevant literature dominant to the expansion of the conceptual model. Specifically, this literature review related to the perception and purchase intention. The Underlying Theory of Perception Most of the consumers will judge based on the price, store name, and brand name, to incriminate product quality perceptions has been demonstrated (Agrawal Teas, 2002). Study is an important build for investigative ethics-relevant feature of situational element in decision making and the relationship between quality cues and perceived quality across different cultural groups (Singhapakdi, Rawwas, Marta Ahmed, 1999; Agrawal Teas, 2002). In investigative the problem of perceived value is important because, when contrast with perceived quality, perceived value is immediate linked to consumer willingness-to-buy (Agrawal Teas, 2002). In additional, values are more complicated concept than the simply quality because it involves a trade-off of give and get components of a business deal. Therefore, the value will influence consumers purchase intention, which conversely is influenced by both quality and monetary sacrifice needed to purchase the product (Agrawal Teas, 2002). According to Agrawal and Teas (2002) Figure 2.1 shows the relationship between perceived quality, perceived sacrifice, perceived value and willingness-to-buy due to these four premises. The second premise will affect the first premise, which is consumers perception of product value will affect by consumers willingness-to-buy. Beside that, the perceived quality and monetary sacrifice is also affect by the consumers perception of value Therefore, Extrinsic cues such store name, brand name and price will be affect by consumers perception of product quality. Followed by, the price would be affect by consumers perception of sacrifice. Agrawal Teas (2002) conclude that: Consumers perceptions of quality and sacrifice will influence by extrinsic cues which is objective price, retailer reputation and brand name; The assessments of perceived value will influence by consumers perceptions of quality and sacrifice; and Consumers willingness-to-buy will be influence by the perceptions of value. According to Agrawal and Teas (2002) most of the consumers very frequent short of the in detail information, interest, expertise and time to assess a products quality. Pricing is also one of the indicators of cost that causes consumers have to give up an opportunity cost in exchange for the other products. The perceived quality and perceived sacrifice intervene the relationship between pricing, retailer reputation and brand name and perceive value. The willingness to buy a product is more directly connected to perceived value than perceived quality. Beliefs, Attitudes and Behavioral Intentions Model The purpose of this research is to find out the relationship between consumers perceptions and purchase intentions. By using the model of beliefs, attitudes and behavioral intentions it can define the relationship between consumers perceptions and purchase intentions (Fishbein Ajzen, 1975). According to Fishbein Ajzen (1975), as illustrated in Figure 2.2 it can define the relationships between perceptions and purchase intentions. As plate in Figure 2.2, the foundation of Fishbein Ajzen (1975) model is touch down in the difference between beliefs, attitude, intentions and behaviors. Beliefs are the main blocks in the model. Based on the first hand observation receive from outside source, a person emulate of beliefs about an object. Then they joint the object with every attributes. Therefore, a persons forges beliefs about oneself, about other people, about institutions, behaviors. The overall of a persons beliefs serve as the message base that ultimately defines their attitude, intentions and behaviors. Attitude can be characterization as a learned inclination to respond in a constant favorable or unfavorable way with respect to given object. Meanwhile, a behavioral intention indicates to a persons pectoral probability that they will perform some specific behavior. According to Fishbein Ajzen (1975) conceptual framework, a persons intentions, in the last resolution, are a function of certain beliefs. Some of these beliefs affect the persons attitude toward the behavior. In detailed, a person manner toward performing a given behavior is linked to their beliefs that performing the behavior will guide to certain outcome and his appraisal of those outcome. The acceptance is that the more favorable a persons attitude toward an object, the more they will propose to implement positive behaviors and the less they will propose to implement negative behaviors with respect to that object. The standard variable in Fishbein Ajzen (1975) model is the individuals behavioral intention. Fishbein Ajzen (1975) stated that behavioral intentions minister as a persons attitude toward an intervening variable and clear behavior. Fishbein Ajzen (1975) confident that the best forecast of a given behavior should be the persons intention to deal in that behavior. In order to forecast a concrete behavior (purchase intention), it is essential to measure the persons attitude and intentions toward performing that behavior (Fishbein Ajzen (1975). Therefore, if there can forecast on the behavioral intentions, in the other way it also can forecast the real behavior (Newberry, Klemz Boshoff, 2003). Product Cues Consumer assess products is based on the two attributes. Product linked attributes and non-product attributes are the two attributes. Design, serviceability and workmanship are the examples of product linked attributes (Gutman Alden, 1985). Inherent cues are the attributes that should not be transformed without transforming the physical features of the product itself (Gutman Alden, 1985). Consumers find it hard, if not impractical to assess the intrinsic cues precisely (Gutman Alden, 1985). The second element is extrinsic cues which are non-product linked attributes. Extrinsic cue is one which forms element of the worth of the product which is not innate characteristic of the substantial product (Gutman Alden, 1985). When inherent cues are apparent as being unpredictable, incomparable or unavailable, the extrinsic cues are relied upon seriously in the circumstances of risks (Gutman Alden, 1985). Research have revealed that consumers depend on extrinsic cues such as brand name (Agrawal Teas, 2002), price (Agrawal Teas, 2002), seller reputation (Agrawal Teas, 2002), advertising (Gutman Alden, 1985) and country-of-origin (Gutman Alden, 1985), in evaluating the value of products and brands preceding to purchase. Brand is used particularly as inherent cues (e.g. taste, performance and design) are not obtainable (Gutman Alden, 1985). This research aims to focus on an imperative gap by investigative product cue usage among consumers in Malaysia as both inherent and ext rinsic cues are predictable to influence consumers purchase intention. Inherent cues on Purchase Intention Consumers will form their possess perceptions on product cues, irrespective of their correctness as product cues are main advertising variables that pressure purchase decisions of potential customers (Singhapakdi, Rawwas, Marta Ahmed, 1999). The components of cultural pressure and group conventionality have a weaker influence on attitudes than product assessment, and they are major predictors for domestic products but not for imported products (Chung Pysarchik, 2000). According to Singhapakdi, Rawwas, Marta Ahmed (1999) Malaysian and United State consumers will also be compared in condition of their personality ethical philosophies. Furthermore, the two groups of consumers will be compared about their attitudes toward business, in most cases, and toward salespeople (Singhapakdi, Rawwas, Marta Ahmed, 1999). There were several primary differences between United State and Malaysia is chosen for the assessment among these two countries (Singhapakdi, Rawwas, Marta Ahmed, 1999). For example, the civilizing typology, the two cultures are different in definite significant values (Singhapakdi, Rawwas, Marta Ahmed, 1999). It has constantly found real differences in moral perceptions in United State compared to Malaysia (Singhapakdi, Rawwas, Marta Ahmed, 1999). Beside that, a study by Chung Pysarchik (2000) on cross-cultural differences within the apply of inherent and extrinsic product cues on consumers assessment and purchase intention for an attire product in China and Korea has reported that there were several differences in Chinese and Korean in assessing quality, worthy and purchase intentions. Findings have exposed that design was a stronger forecaster of purchase intention among Korean consumer (Chung Pysarchik, 2000). In brief, Korean consumers become visible to decide value of an attire product by comparing physical quality and design to price suitability, whereas Chinese consumers perception of value appear to be mainly reliant on their price perceptions (Chung Pysarchik, 2000). In addition, the research by Diamantopoulos, Schlegelmilch Preez (1995) the possibility of standardizing European advertising has been questioned on the basis of trade and industry, cultural, and behavioral differences among European consumers. Particularly, it compares British and German consumers through observe to automobile purchases, insertion exacting importance on quantifying the relation importance of country-of-origin and environmental cues in a multi-cue context (Diamantopoulos, Schlegelmilch Preez, 1995). Inherent cues are conceptualized as the attributes that should not be distorted or manipulated without changing the physical characteristics of the product itself (Gutman Alden, 1985). In inherent cues it might be hypothesized that inherent cues with slight consequence to consumers when evaluating an automobile. Singhapakdi, Rawwas, Marta Ahmed (1999) study have shaped an opposing consequence. Their findings have exposed that inherent cues are possible to have a better collision on product assessments than extrinsic cues (Singhapakdi, Rawwas, Marta Ahmed, 1999). Automobile purchase is a high contribution product and its difficult for consumers who do not have any technical background (Singhapakdi, Rawwas, Marta Ahmed, 1999). Since automobile is a physical product, consumers more often assess product by using inherent cues such as color, design and specifications of the automobile (Gutman Alden, 1985) and extrinsic cues which is brand name, retailer reputation and price (Agrawal Teas, 2002). Since it is luxurious, it is bought once in a while. It is apparent to be dangerous and is extremely self expressive (Singhapakdi, Rawwas, Marta Ahmed, 1999). Country of Origin on Purchase Intention In given that to determining the work of country of origin has develop into one of the extensively research concepts in promotion and consumers behavior (Peterson Jolibert, 1995). It is one of the majority extensively deliberate phenomena in all the international business, promotion, and consumers behavior joint (Peterson Jolibert, 1995). It is unambiguous that a products country of origin can pressure consumers evaluative judgments of the product (Diamantopoulos, Schlegelmilch Preez, 1995). These researches have established that consumers from miscellaneous countries have different perception about products produce in different countries (Diamantopoulos, Schlegelmilch Preez, 1995). Also, it is acknowledged that there is a better requirement to determine consumers attitude towards both domestic and foreign products (Ozsomer Cavusgil, 1991). Several researches in this area have alert on what is called the country of origin consequence, investigating how consumers recognize products sourced from a exacting country (Peterson Jolibert, 1995). Country of origin is distinct as the country of produce or assembly (Ozsomer Cavusgil, 1991). This refers to the final point of produce which can be the same as the headquarters of the organization doing the marketing of the product or the brand name (Diamantopoulos, Schlegelmilch Preez, 1995). Precedent country-of-origin research is mainly leaning towards consumer evaluations of product quality (Diamantopoulos, Schlegelmilch Preez, 1995). Results on American buyers perception on product made in Eastern Europe have shown that industrial buyer usually felt that the quality of goods manufactured in West European countries was higher than the quality of products manufactured in the Eastern (Huddleston, Good Stoel, 2001). While country-of-origin belongings have been deliberate for over twenty five years, most of the research is restricted to uni-national products connecting a single country-of origin (Ozsomer Cavusgil, 1991). In recent times, the minority researchers have ongoing to observe the country-of-origin possessions in the circumstance of multi-country surroundings, making a dissimilarity among country of construct or assembly and the country of the companys headquarters (Huddleston, Good Stoel, 2001). For example, Anurit, Newman Chansarkar (1999) found that with the intention of designed for bi-national products; country of manufacture has superior possessions on top of consumer evaluations of product quality than does the brand name. In addition, Ozsomer Cavusgil (1991) found that there is no benefit in by means of a country with apparent greater design ability to improve product quality perception if the country assembly location is already apparent to produce poor quality products. Country of origin might be less important than has usually been supposed and they might happen mainly in relation to assessment of detailed attributes rather than overall evaluations (Huddleston, Good Stoel, 200 1). Consequently, there is no inquiry that country of origin consequence does exist and made-in typecast can be modify at least in the long-standing. Analyzing information throughout the use of structural modeling, Diamantopoulos, Schlegelmilch Preez (1995) found rejection direct association of country of origin on purchase intentions and this confirms Peterson Jolibert (1995) doubts that country of origin evaluations has modest or rejection direct pressure on purchase intentions. This led researchers to conclude that the pressure of country of origin is more possible to function throughout supplementary variables rather than straight on purchase intentions (Diamantopoulos, Schlegelmilch Preez, 1995). According to Diamantopoulos, Schlegelmilch Preez (1995) the connection between country-of-origin possessions and branding has newly attracted rehabilitated concentration. For car manufacturers, country-of-origin possessions are of exacting significance (Diamantopoulos, Schlegelmilch Preez, 1995). Alternatively, they have achieved an extremely worldwide organization of manufacture processes which makes it ever more complicated for common consu

Reducing Corruption in the Nigerian Police Force

Reducing Corruption in the Nigerian Police Force Overview: This paper intends to examine the ramifications of corruption in the Nigerian Police Force (NPF), with respect to public safety and human rights, and provide four policy strategies that can be adopted by the Nigerian government to reduce police corruption. The paper will investigate police corruption within the purview of three theories: structural-functional theory, deviant behaviour theory and soft state theory. Drawing on these theories the paper will establish how their application to police corruption can help in understanding the tragedies of police corruption and reducing corruption in the NPF. In examining the ramifications of police corruption in Nigeria, the paper will explore concepts such as corruption of authority, kickbacks, opportunity theft, shakedowns, internal payoffs, padding, and the fix to show varying dimensions of police corruption. Background:   Ã‚   In recent years, the level of corruption in Nigeria, particularly in the NPF, has become alarming. Police corruption in Nigeria takes different forms, ranging from officers collecting money from the citizens at checkpoints, to officers extorting money from alleged law offenders at police stations, to officers tampering evidence to influence court cases, to officers using forceful and eccentric means to obtain information, to officers working as accomplices to electoral malpractices, illegal activities and human rights abuses, and to officers mismanaging funds allocated to the Police Force for personal aggrandizement. The most recent Global Corruption Barometer shows that 75% of Nigerians believe that the level of corruption has increased over the years and 72% perceive the NPF to be the most corrupt institution in the country (Pring 2015, 36 37). Also, 78% of Nigerians believe that the government has not handled the fight against corruption well (Ibid, 42); hence the anti-corruption performance of government is ranked poor. For over a decade, corruption in the NPF has come under increasing public scrutiny, as domestic and international civil society organizations involved in anti-corruption activism, have intensified efforts in uncovering corrupt practices in the NPF and demanding actions against police corruption. The activities of the anti-corruption activists have revealed series of public scandals involving senior officers of the NPF. Police corruption in Nigeria has raised serious concern about the standard of ethics and integrity in the NPF. Since 1994, there had been four Presidential Committees on Police Reform established by different political administrations to examine issues facing the NPF and make recommendations to the government. But the recommendations of these committees have never been implemented. Thus efforts to reform the NPF have faced difficulties across many fronts. Underfunding and arbitrary disbursement of allocations to the NPF are common challenges facing the NPF. Despite these committees, government has not been able to deal with police corruption, as government continues to embark on circuit of establishing more committees, with huge wage bills. This, therefore, is an indication of deep lack of political will to reform the NPF. Issue statement/Policy questions: The paper intends to establish that police corruption has become overwhelming and persistent such that it undermines good governance in Nigeria and causes systemic gangrene of the institutional fabrics of the NPF. As a result, the need for coherent strategies to reduce police corruption has become imperative. In light of this problem, the paper intends to answer the following policy questions: What is the fundamental problem with Nigerias efforts to reduce police corruption? Why have the previous strategies designed to fight police corruption failed? What are best methods to reduce police corruption in Nigeria? Methodology: The paper is a non-empirical investigation. Thus it intends to carry out a historical study of the NPF and factors responsible for police corruption in Nigeria. This task is relevant because it will provide insights into the various forms of police corruption in Nigeria and their impacts. Based on the non-empirical nature of the paper, its key considerations will be based on theoretical and empirical review of the relevant literature. Research will involve library research and materials will be sourced from wider sources, including academic journals, books, periodicals, reports, conference/seminar papers, newspapers articles, and other electronic sources. Motivation: The motivation for this paper is based on the authors concern about the tragedy of police corruption in his country. This concern springs from the authors personal experiences with the Nigerian police officers. The need to address the decay in the NPF, particularly from the Nigerian perspective, thus underlies this paper. Theoretical frameworks: Structural-functional theory: This theory posits that the social structure of a society has an impact on the way people conduct themselves. Thus how the network of social interactions is structured in society can explain the extent of police corruption. The guiding principle is that in a moral-guided society tolerance for police corruption is likely to be zero, thereby making it possible for social institutions to function with moral awareness. Deviant behaviour theory: This theory can be used to explain the organizational nature of police corruption. Police corruption can thus be explained from the perspective of group behaviour, which is guided by sets of societal norms that are linked to the organization to which the police officers belong to, as opposed to the behaviour of individual police officers. The guiding principle is that police corruption can be well-understood from the organizational context of the NPF where the corrupt behaviours occur. Soft state theory: This theory can be used to explain police corruption from the context that the extent to which the government is incapable of implementing reforms and instituting social disciplines speaks volumes about the level of corruption in the state. The guiding principle is that police corruption is rife in a state where the government lacks the ability to implement reforms; hence government institutions are disinclined to demand social disciplines from the people. Structure: Below is the brief synopsis of the paper. Introduction Background Issue statement Policy questions Motivation Key considerations: Theoretical framework and Empirical evidence Corruption and the Nigerian Police Force: Brief historical background of the NPF Overview of Concepts: Corruption and Police corruption Typologies of police corruption Nature of police corruption in Nigeria Factors responsible for police corruption in Nigeria Policy strategies to reduce corruption in the NPF: Assessment of previous anti-corruption strategies Proposed strategies to reduce police corruption Tipping point leadership style Alliance building with public sector institutions, private sector (including media and civil society), and broader political structure Amending legal frameworks (Constitution and Police Act) Introducing Anti-Corruption Code aka The Police Code in the Police Act Recommendations/Conclusion

Shakespeares Alls Well That Ends Well, Macbeth, Much Ado About Nothing, and Hamlet :: Free Macbeth Essays

Finding Ourselves in Shakespeare's All's Well That Ends Well, Macbeth, Much Ado About Nothing, and Hamlet Who are we? Paul Simon said, "I am a rock." John Lennon said, "I am the walrus." Steve Miller said, "I'm a joker, I'm a smoker, I'm a midnight toker." Richard Nixon said, "I am not a crook." Basically, it boils down to this: people naturally don't really know who they are, or really are. These metaphorical song lyrics (excluding Tricky Dick) seem to be searches at an explanation of the self. People have been attempting to secure their identities forever. At first this search seemed synonymous with a search of an origin. Religious doctrines were devised to explain who people are and if not, how they should be. However, one's identity or soul or true self is not a stagnant or secure identity. One's character or self is always apt to evolve with age and experience, or quicker, depending on situations like if one is drunk (Cassio), etc. The ambiguity of people's personage is a theme Shakespeare explores in most of his works. He does so with many means: the use of costumes, magic, dishone sty, and most often with confusion. Characters in Shakespeare are never what they seem. Hamlet says, "I know not 'seems.'" Iago says, "I'm not what I am." Henry V says, "Presume not that I am the thing I was." What Shakespeare seems to be doing is breaking down identities. We develop a discourse of pattern-based predictions about who people are and how they will behave. When people act differently or out of our perception of their character we assume something is wrong. We all fester a natural tendency to seek black and white or at least know where people stand. Trust and honesty, declared and respected virtues, are based on this inherent need. Shakespeare again and again breaks these beliefs down by basing all significant action in his plays on people acting out of their perceived characters. Examples include the love quadrangle in A Midsummer Night's Dream; the rejection of Falstaff in Henry IV, Part 2; Othello's struggle with Desdemona's potential promiscuity; Claudio and Prince John's assumption of Hero's whorishness; the Archbishop, Mowbray, and Hastings' belief in the honor of Lancaster's inferred intentions; etc. So often in Shakespeare's plays, characters put on disguises and wear masks to hide who they truly are for some purpose or another. So much of his story lines depend on instances where people's assumptions are false perceptions of who someone really is.

Gothic Theme in Chapter 5 of Frankenstein Essay -- Mary Shelley

Gothic Horror has been described as â€Å"delightful horror†. Focusing on Chapter 5 of Frankenstein, how has Shelley used the Gothic Genre to explore deeper issues? The term ‘Gothic’ conjures a range of possible meanings, definitions and associations. It explicitly denotes certain historical and cultural phenomena. Gothicism was part of the Romantic Movement that started in the eighteenth century and lasted about three decades into the nineteenth century. For this essay, the definition of Gothic that is applicable is: An 18th century literary style characterized by gloom and the supernatural. In the Gothic novel Frankenstein by Mary Shelley, a wide range of issues are explored. Frankenstein represents an entirely new vision of the female Gothic, along with many other traditional themes such as religion, science, colonialism and myth. Mary Shelley, the author of the novel Frankenstein, was born on August 30th 1797. He father, William Godwin, was a philosopher, and her mother was Mary Wollstonecraft, who is still well known for being an author and one of the first feminists. But unfortunately Mary Shelley’s mother died of puerperal fever ten days after giving birth to her daughter. As Mary’s father was a philosopher, Mary had to listen to many intellectual talks. Mary was strongly impressed by the brilliant talks she listened to since she was young as she was surrounded by famous writers and philosophers. The intellectual environment in which she lived stimulated her Romantic sensibility and the political revolutionary ideas of the time. Later on in life Mary married a man named Percy Bysshe Shelley. Percy was a poet and a member of the Romantic Movement. But unfortunately Mary had to elope with Shelley at the age of 16 as he was... ...t agitation, listening attentively, catching and fearing each sound as if it were to announce the approach of the demonical corpse which I had so miserably given life.† The archaic vocabulary such as â€Å"demonical† and â€Å"I took refuge† are not words or phrases that we would particularly use today but here it shows Victor’s own scientific and religious readings are perhaps too dated and too passionate. To conclude, I believe that this novel gives a warning to the reader. I believe that it is telling us not to push the boundaries of reality and not to tamper with things that would perhaps be better left alone, because the consequences are unknown, unpredictable and unnatural. It tells us that death and birth are things that in the modern world we just have to accept, and that we should not even attempt to exceed mortal limitations: Playing God should be left to God.

Cloning :: essays research papers

I am an astronaut stranded on Mars whose spaceship has broken down beyond repair. In my disabled craft there is a Teleclone Mark IV teleporter that can swiftly and painlessly dismantle my body, producing a molecule-by-molecule blueprint to be beamed to Earth. There, a Teleclone receiver stocked with the requisite atoms will produce, from the beamed instructions me- composite with all my memories, thoughts, feelings, and opinions. If I activate the Teleclone Mark IV, I believe that I am the astronaut produced from a blueprint on Earth because the astronaut that was dismantled on Mars is now only a bunch of molecules instead of a living, breathing human being. Suppose further that an improved Teleclone Mark V is developed that can obtain its blueprint without destroying the original, thus â€Å"cloning† me. In that case, I believe that I am both astronauts at once, just with two different consciousnesses.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When I activate the Teleclone Mark IV, the machine dismantles me into molecules and makes a blueprint of it to send to Earth. On Earth, I am reassembled into myself exactly as I was on Mars. I am now the astronaut that was reassembled because the astronaut that was disassembled on Mars no longer exists and is now a bunch of random molecules. It is the same concept as in â€Å"Star Trek† and â€Å"Power Rangers† when people get â€Å"beamed† to a certain place, except with the Teleclone Mark IV, you are being recreated to be exactly like your original form. There was an episode of â€Å"The Magic School Bus† where one of the students accidentally destroyed one of her classmate’s toy soldiers. She then went to a recycling factory, picked out the same material that made up the old toy soldier, and made him a new toy soldier. Even though it is made of the same material and looks exactly the same as the old toy soldier, it is not the same toy soldier because the old toy soldier was destroyed and it ceased to exist. When I was destroyed, I died and my soul went to heaven or hell. When I was reassembled on Earth, I was exactly like myself physically but I had no soul and my soul makes me who I am and separates me from everyone else. Suppose you are using a computer. It is the same thing as â€Å"cutting† something and pasting it to a new location.

Hope Is the Thing with Feathers Essay

In Emily Dickenson’s poem, Hope, she uses poetic device’s to describe hope as being like a bird. Birds are usually symbolized as being courageous and having a free soul to roam the skies. Therefore to compare hope to being like a bird was a wise choice for Dickenson because those who choose to be hopeful will have a necessity to have courage deep within them. Dickenson begins her poem with this vague statement that â€Å"Hope is the thing with feathers† (line 1). She refers to feathers as being like the feathers of a bird. As she continues on the second line, she states that the bird â€Å"perches in the soul† (line 2). This could best be explained that just as a bird rests upon a perch, hope can as well rest or perch deep in the soul. Dickenson uses imagery of the bird to show how hope can be perceived by the naked eye. In lines three through four, the bird â€Å"sings the tune-without the words/ and never stops at all† (line 3-4). These lines explain that even though the human eye may not be able to see hope in a physical aspect, they can sure believe that it is there and that feeling hope is indeed possible. One can never stop hoping and never the less, living a life without hope would inevitably be difficult. Dickenson metaphorically describes what it would be like if a person were to annihilate hope from their lives. Beginning with lines five through eight she states â€Å"And sweetest in the gale is heard/ and sore must be the storm/ that could abash the little bird/ that kept so many warm† (lines 5-8). The reasoning behind this statement is that the one who demolishes hope will never feel it and will continue to have feelings of negativity and sorrow. In comparison to this, the bird in the storm is just like the one with no hope and constant negativity. The storm would be considered the negativity and the bird would be considered the people who are brought down by these negative actions. These actions can cause the little bird to be abashed. In other words, it may bring sorrow to the people around. Dickenson uses a metaphor of the bird when she states that â€Å"[It] kept so many warm† (line 8). Physically it would be impossible for â€Å"hope† to keep anything warm; however, mentally making one feel warm is possible. Hope is a free quality to have that never asks of anything in return. In the last few stanzas of Dickenson’s poem, she writes about how the bird has never asked anything from her. In line 12, it says that the bird never asked a crumb of her. Again this can mean that asking anything in return is out of the question when dealing with the feeling of hope. It was available to her within the â€Å"chillest land/ and on the strangest sea† (lines 9-10). Anytime someone needs reassurance of hope, it is accessible to them and will always be there for them. Hope exists in everyone. Dickenson may be trying to portray to her readers that anything can be accomplished if hope is present. She advises to keep hope close and to admire it for as long as possible to pursue ones high hopes and dreams. Breaking down Dickenson’s poem resulted in a better understanding of what she was trying to portray. Metaphorically, Dickenson uses the bird to resemble hope. Hope belongs in our souls and is eternal, just as she says how the bird perches in our soul and never stops singing. Even in the harshest conditions, the bird continues to sing. Finally, Hope remains in the soul always and asks for nothing because it is free. Hope can be narrowed down to being classified as a gift from God.

A discourse community and cosmetology Essay

To some people a cosmetologist may not have the perfect job. However they have been around for centuries. Cosmetologists didn’t have the name they have today, but they date back to Ancient Egypt, China, Rome, and Greece. Every culture has incorporated beauty into their everyday lifestyle. The field of cosmetology is somewhat of a more broader field than others. Cosmetologists can decide to style hair or he/she can chose to incorporate hair, skin, and nails all together. Whatever he/she decides they could most likely get a job anywhere in the world whether it be a celebrity stylist or a small town hairdresser. While a student in a Comp 1 class we had an assignment to read John Swales’ Six Characteristics of a Discourse Community, and after reading it, I realized that in the field of cosmetology we have a few of the main characteristics of a discourse community. We have clear goals, a particular lexis, intercommunication, and certain genres that are used daily in the hair industry. Methodology As a cosmetologist at Supercuts # 80201 I needed to find out if we were in fact a discourse community. So in between our busy hours I was able to get a copy of the textual ways of communication. A few of the things I got were color cards, waxing cards, price list, permission slip, schedule, and a business card. I was able to get an interview with Michele Yancey the manager of Supercuts # 80201. I asked her a series of about fifteen questions. I concluded that she was a more experienced cosmetologist and she would be able to take on any challenging task that occurred in the salon. I was also able to observe a fellow co-worker Brandie Fenelon to be a witness of someone practicing great customer service. Results After observing the salon atmosphere I saw that Supercuts # 80201 has all six characteristics of a discourse community. However my research will only cover four of the six characteristics. First, Supercuts # 80201 has a broadly agreed upon set of goals that are also the goals of Peak Management, the franchise owner of Supercuts # 80201. Some of the goals that I found are keeping the clients happy at all time with a minimal wait time. Meaning that the manager is to schedule enough stylist for every shift. Another shared goal is to make sure every client gets to experience the 360* cut. Which includes offering a shampoo after the cut and recommend products to take home and â€Å"Rock the Cut†. Another shared goal would be great customer service. Upon observing Brandie Fenelon, my co-worker at Supercuts # 80201, she demonstrated the way one should show great customer service. As the client walked thru the door she greeted him with a smile, asked for his name, added him into the computer, introduced herself, showed him to his seat, and discussed what service she was going to perform that day. When the client left he was pleased with the 360* service he received. Another shared goal is a fulfilling clientele. Without a large clientele we wouldn’t have the funds to run an efficient salon/business, and pay for the supplies that are needed to color someone’s hair or wax someone’s lip or brows. Second, Supercuts # 80201 has certain textual genres. Besides verbally communicating with each other the cosmetologists at Supercuts # 80201 have a few things that have to be done before a color or a waxing service. Before either service the client has to fill out a questionnaire, then the cosmetologist reads over the information to make sure that it is safe to perform the service requested. These cards are kept in case the client doesn’t sue for malpractice. They are also kept as a record of their history, what the exact color was/is or what they got waxed, and the outcome of the service. Instead of the client getting frustrated we can pull the card and they can initial every time they get a service that requires a signature. The cards also act as a quote for the client making sure the service fits their budget. A second way of textual communication is the price list. It is set to make sure the clients are treated fairly and the cosmetologist can make a living. If we didn’t have a price list the customer would get confused and wonder why they pay a different price every time they came to the salon. A third way of textual communication is through e-mail. When corporate decides to have a special they send a detailed e-mail as well as a facsimile of everything that is on sale. They also send mass e-mails to every salon to warn them about theft and manipulation of sales tickets and the consequences of the crime. They also send e-mails of encouragement with contests to reward every stylist that gives a 360* experience to every client that walks thru the door. Third, Supercuts # 80201 has a certain intercommunication. When a stylist calls Peak Management for help he or she has to decide what person is going to be able to best address their needs. After calling the corporate location the person needing help is to record their name, as well as the store name, number, and location. As a larger company we send out invitations to come into out salon and get a percentage or certain dollar amount off of a product, a haircut, or sometimes a color. We also have a schedule that is posted two weeks in advance. If there is a day that we need off there is a calendar close by so that we can jot down when and why we can not work that day. Finally, the cosmetologists at Supercuts # 80201 have a specific lexis that we use in our discourse community. There are two different types of lexis used in our discourse community. The first one is a spoken lexis that most people wouldn’t understand. For example we say things like 1. 5 ounces of 6rv with 10 volume or he wants a fade with finger length on top. Then there is a written lexis, for example, 1/3 7nb, 1/3 7nn, & 1/3 6rb w/ 20 vol. or h/c w/Chelsey. All of the examples are those used everyday in our community. Analysis After analyzing everything that I had collected, I saw that I have everything that makes the field of cosmetology a discourse community. After reading Ann M. Johns article I answered one of her questions. Are there layers of community? (500) As a member of a discourse community I had an assignment to collect certain things for this paper and I did find that there are layers to the community. In our discourse community we have three layer the first being Regis Corporation, the second being Peak Management, and the third being the individual salons where the stylists work. The Regis Corporation is there for the merchandise we receive and sell. They are also the ones that send the supplies that we order when we are out. Peak Management is the owner of the individual salons. They are the ones who pay for the supplies that are used on a daily basis. Then there are the stylists that work in the salon and keep it going. The goals, textual genres, intercommunication are the same through out the layers of the community, however the lexis is different. A cosmetologist has to go to school to learn hair, but to own a salon you don’t have to have the education. Therefore the people of the corporate office are not able to understand the lexis used in the salon. Regis Corporation is there to provide the supplies that are needed for everyday use. They only own the name Supercuts. Peak Management is who is responsible for marketing and the advertisements that are out there. They offer the highest hourly rate as oppose to booth rent or commission. They also set the pay rate and sign the stylists pay check. As well as providing a safe and comfortable atmosphere for their stylists to work in. They also provide the funds for the contests and bonuses that are available to us. The stylists that work for Supercuts also have to supply their own equipment such as clippers, razors, and shears for their clients. We have to provide a little more than Regis Corporation and Peak Management because we are on a level of contact with each person that walk thru the salon door. So if I am not up to my highest potential to perform my job as a stylist I may loose a client. Therefore I have to make sure I give a 360* experience to each client I have in order to insure the security of my job. In my opinion people that join certain communities are joining because they are around people with the same likes and dislikes. The reason I joined the Supercuts # 80201 is because I get to have the interaction with people that I enjoy. It gives me the satisfaction of seeing clients walking out with a smile. Conclusion Within this paper you will find four of the six characteristics of a discourse community as defined by John Swales. They consist of clear goals, a particular lexis, intercommunication, and certain genres that make the community I am in a discourse community. I hope I have helped you to understand how a cosmetologist could be classified as a discourse community. As a cosmetologist I have set goals that I have to go by in order to have my clientele leave happy and come back. Works Cited Swales, John. â€Å"The Concept of Discourse Community. † Writing about Writing: A College Reader. By Elizabeth Wardle and Doug Downs. Boston: Bedford/St. Martins, 2011. 468-79. Print. Johns, Ann M. â€Å"Discourse Communities and Communities of Practice: Membership, Conflict, and Diversity. † Text, Role, and Context: Developing Academic Literacies. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1997. 500-01. Print.

Agency relationship Essay

1. INTRODUCTION Agency is a fiduciary relationship created by express or implied contract or by law, in which one party (the agent) may act on behalf of another party (the principal) and bind that other party by words and/or actions. The etymology of the word agent or agency says much. The words are derived from the Latin verb ago, agere (the respective noun agens, agentis). The word denotes one who acts, a doer, force or power that accomplishes things.1 Agency is the exception to the doctrine of privity under the law of contract. 2. LIABILITY OF A PRINCIPAL AGAINST THIRD PARTIES Lord Alverstone CJ in THE QUEEN V KANE2 defined an agent simply as ‘any person who happens to act on behalf of another’. A principal is one who authorizes another to act on his or her behalf as an agent. The general rule is that where an agent makes a contract on behalf of his principal, the contract is between the principal and the third party and prima facie at common law, the only person who can sue and be sued on the contract is the principal. The agent acquires no rights under the contract, nor does he incur any obligation. Having performed his task by bringing about a contract between his principal and a third party, the agent drops out of the picture subject to any outstanding matters between him and principal.3 The onus is on the person alleging that he entered into a contract with another person through an agent to prove that in fact the agent was acting as such. Agents of the state can never be personally liable for the state’s failure to perform a contractual obligation as stated in STICKROSE (PTY) LIMITED V THE PERMANENT SECRETARY MINISTRY OF FINANCE 4. In law, agents are recognized as having the power to affect the legal rights, liabilities and relationships of the principal. In CAVMONT MERCHANT BANK v AMAKA AGRICULTURAL HOLDINGS5, the Supreme Court held that where an agent in making the contract discloses both the interest and the names of the principal on whose behalf he purports to make a contract, the agent as a general rule is not liable to the other contracting party. Apart from having the power to affect the legal rights, liabilities and relationships of the principal, the agent may also affect the legal position of his principal in other ways. For instance, he may dispose of the principal’s property in  order to transfer ownership to a third party or he may acquire property on his principal’s behalf. Sometimes the actions of the agent may make the principal criminally liable as illustrated in the case of GARDENER v ACKEROYD 6.  The rights and liabilities of principal and agent against third parties may differ according to whether the agency is disclosed or undisclosed. The distinction between disclosed and disclosed agency is important as it affects the principal’s ability to ratify the agent’s actions. Furthermore, the agent’s liability to third parties may depend on whether the agency was disclosed or not. Agency is disclosed where the agent reveals that he is acting as an agent; if the agency is disclosed it is of no legal significance that the principal is not named. If an agent contracts with a third party without disclosing that he is acting as an agent the agency is undisclosed. 7 An undisclosed principal can intervene on the contracts of an agent within his actual authority. Where an agent makes a contract disclosing the agency, the normal rule is that a direct contractual relationship is created between the principal and the third party and either party can sue the other on the contract. It is important to note that only a disclosed principal can ratify an unauthorised contract. In KEIGHLEY MAXTED v DURANT8 a principal authorized an agent to buy wheat at a given price in the joint names of the principal and the agent. Having failed to purchase wheat at that higher price, the agent bought wheat in his own name at a higher price. The principal being satisfied with this act purportedly ratified the wheat purchase agreement at a higher price but failed to take delivery of the wheat. The seller then sued the principal arguing that the sale contract had been ratified. It was held that the action could not succeed because the agent’s act was unauthorized and since the principal’s identity had not been disclosed to the sellor, the principal could not ratify and consequently was not liable on the contract. Where the principal is disclosed, he and not the agent is liable on the contract and may sue and be sued. In GADD v HOUGHTON & CO.9 Houghton & Co. sold to the buyers Gadd, a quantity of oranges under a ‘sold note’ which stated, inter alia, that ‘we have this day sold to you on  account of James Morand & Co †¦.’ and signed ‘Houghton & Co.’ The seller having failed to deliver the oranges, the buyer sued Houghton & Co for damages for non-delivery. The action failed, since by the words of the sold note Houghton & Co had clearly indicated that they were not to be personally liable. They were merely brokers. Lord Mellish stated that â€Å"where you find a person in the body of the instrument treating himself as the seller or character, you can say that he intended to bind himself.† In SUI YIN KWAN & ANOTHER v EASTERN INSURANCE CO. LTD10 it was held that the doctrine of undisclosed principal applied. Where an agent acts within his actual authority the undisclosed principal may intervene and acquire the rights/liabilities of the agent. In this case, the agents acted within their actual authority and therefore, the relatives could recover from the insurance company. Lord Lloyd summarized the law as follows: (1) an undisclosed principal may sue and be sued on a contract made by an agent on his behalf, acting within the scope of his actual authority. (2) In entering into the contract, the agent must intend to act on the principal’s behalf. (3) The agent of an undisclosed principal may also sue and be sued on the contract. (4) Any defence which the third party may have against the agent is available against his principal. (5) The terms of the contract may, expressly or by implication, exclude the principal’s right to sue, and his liability to be sued. The contract itself, or the circumstances surrounding the contract, may show that the agent is the true and only principal. Sometimes the agent contracts with third parties after disclosing the fact, that he is an agent but without disclosing the name of his principal. In such cases, the principal is bound by the contracts made on his behalf. And thus, the principal is liable to third parties for his agent’s acts done on behalf of the principal. However, such acts must be within the scope of the agent’s authority, and the unnamed principal must be in existence at the time of contract. As a matter of fact, when the agent contracts after disclosing his representative character, the contract will be the contract of the principal. For all such acts, the agent is not personally liable. However, the agent is personally liable if he declines to disclose the identity of the principal when asked by the third parties. 11  When there is undisclosed agency, the contract is initially between agent and the third party and each may enforce the contract against the other. However, if the third party later discovers the principal’s existence, he may enforce the contract against either the agent or the principal. Provided that the agent acted within the scope of his actual authority, the principal can intervene and enforce the contract against the third party. 12 3. CIRCUMSTANCES WHEN AN AGENT MAY BE HELD PERSONALLY LIABLE If an agent continues to act after his authority has been terminated, he may incur personal liability for breach of implied warranty of authority. Sometimes an agent may suffer a potential risk when his authority is terminated automatically without his knowledge. In the case of YONGE v TOYNBEE13 where solicitors were acting in litigation for a client who, unknown to them, became mentally incapacitated so that the agency was considered to be terminated. However, they continued to litigate for the client and were held liable for their breach of warrant of authority and were ordered to pay the costs of the other litigant. There are three exceptional cases where the undisclosed principal cannot sue or be sued, by the third party. The first is where the contract between the agent and the third party expressly provides that the agent is the sole principal U.K MUTUAL STEAMSHIP ASSURANCE ASSOCIATION v NEVILL14. The second is where the terms of the contract are inconsistent with agency. In HUMBLE v HUNTER15, an agent signed a charter-party in his own name and described himself as â€Å"owner† of the ship. It was held that his undisclosed principal could not sue. The third case where an undisclosed principal cannot sue is where the identity of the principal is material to the third party. One such case is where the contract made between the agent and the third party is too personal to permit an undisclosed principal to intervene, for example, contracts for personal service. In the case of SAID v BUTT16, a theatre critic knew the management of a particular theatre would not sell him a ticket because of articles he had written. He obtained a ticket through an agent. It was held that the theatre could prevent the principal from  entering the theatre. McCardie J said that â€Å"the critic could not assert a right as an undisclosed principal since, as he knew, the theatre was not willing to contract with him†. Even where the undisclosed principal’s existence is discovered, the agent remains liable on the contract and the third party may choose to enforce the contract against either principal or the agent but not both. This is known as the right of election. A third party has an elective right to sue either the agent or the principal where the agent does not disclose the principal. In BOYTER V THOMSON17 the seller instructed agents to sell on his behalf a cabin cruiser under a brokerage and agency agreement. The buyer purchased the boat thinking it was owned by the agents and he was not told that the agents were acting as such nor the name of the owner nor that the owner was not selling in the course of a business although he was aware that the boat was being sold under a brokerage arrangement. The boat proved to be unseaworthy and was unfit for the purpose for which she was purchased. The buyer sued the seller for damages which were granted. The seller appealed to the House of Lords where goods were sold by an agent acting in the course of business for an undisclosed principal the buyer was entitled to sue not only the agent but also the principal. Once the third party elects to sue one party, his option to sue the other is extinguished. However, not any action by the third party suggesting action against one party in preference for another will be construed as the exercise of the right of election. In CURTIS v WILLIAMSON18, one Boulton appearing to act on his own behalf purchased some gunpowder from the plaintiff. Later, the plaintiff discovered that Boutlton was acting on behalf of an undisclosed principal, the defendant mine owners. Boulton then filed a petition of liquidation and the plaintiff filed an affidavit in those proceedings in an attempt to recover the debt owed for the gunpowder. However, the plaintiff changed their mind and sued the defendant principal. It was held that once an undisclosed principal is discovered the third party may elect to sue that principal; and secondly, that the filing of the affidavit against the agent did not prevent the action against the principal. The third party will not be bound by an election unless he has unequivocally indicated his intention to hold one party liable and release the other. The doctrine of the undisclosed  principal exists for purposes of commercial convenience, it is important to maintain protections for the third party. In the situation where the agent has failed to pass the payment to the third party, either the principal or the third party will lose and it seems fairest to place the loss on the principal.19 4. HOW AGENCY MAY BE DETERMINED As the relationship between the agent and his principal is based on consent, actual authority is of paramount importance. An agent is only entitled to be paid if he acts within his actual authority. If he acts outside his authority he may be liable to his principal. The relationship between the principal and a third party depends on the agent’s power to bind his principal. However, what is of concern to the third party is the agent’s apparent authority as this is what he relies on in the ordinary course of events. There are several types of authority. These are: a) Express Authority – the agreement between a principal and agent may be express or implied. Express agreement may be made orally, in writing or by deed. In general, if an agent is appointed to execute a deed his appointment is by deed called a power of attorney. b) Implied Authority arises where, although a particular action is not sanctioned by express agreement between the principal and the agent, the principal is nevertheless taken to have impliedly consented to the action or transaction in question. In GARNAC GRAIN CO. v H.M.F. FAURE AND FAIRCLOUGH20 the House of Lords stated that â€Å"the relationship of principal and agent can only be established by the consent of the principal and agent. They will be taken to have consented if they have agreed to what amounts at law as a relationship even if they do not recognize it themselves and even if they have professed to disclaim it. An agent who has express authority to carry out a particular task may also have additional authority to do certain acts incidental to his authorized task For instance, an agent authorized to sell the principal’s property has implied incidental authority to sign a contract of sale.† c) Apparent Authority – a person may be bound by the acts of another done on his behalf without his consent or even in breach of an express prohibition if his words or conduct create the impression that he has authorized the other person to act on his behalf. This is described at law as â€Å"apparent agency or  authority† or â€Å"ostensible agency or authority†. The distinction between actual and apparent authority was explained by Diplock L.J. in FREEMAN & LOCKYER V. BUCKHURST PARK PROPERTIES21. â€Å"Apparent† or â€Å"ostensible† authority, is a legal relationship between the principal and the contractor created by a representation, made by the principal to the contractor, intended to be and in fact acted on by the contractor, that the agent has authority to enter on behalf of the principal into a contract of a kind within the scope of the â€Å"apparent† authority, so as to render the principal liable to perform any obligations imposed on him by such contract. To the relationship so created the agent is a stranger. He need not be (although he generally is) aware of the existence of the representation. The representation, when acted on by the contractor by entering into a contract with the agent, operates as an estoppel, preventing the principal from asserting that he is not bound by the contract. It is irrelevant whether the agent had actual authority to enter into the contract. d) Agents of Necessity – A person who acts in an emergency, for instance, to preserve the property or interest of another may be treated as an agent of necessity. His actions will be deemed to have been authorized even if no actual authority is given. Like apparent authority, an agency of necessity can arise even in the absence of consent from the principal. Agency of necessity only arises in extreme circumstances where there is actual and definite commercial necessity for the agent’s actions. The following must be satisfied for an agency of necessity to exist: (i) There must be an emergency – something unforeseen. (ii) It must be practically impossible to get instructions for the principal. (iii) The agent must act bona fide in the interest of the principal rather than to advance his own interests. He must not take advantage of the principal. (iv) The agent must act reasonably in the circumstances. e) Agency arising out of Co-habitation – It is argued that a wife has authority to pledge the credit of her husband for necessities (or vice versa). However, others argue that social conditions now make it old fashioned to suggest that actual or apparent authority should not arise  between husband and wife. The law recognizes the following as agents even though they do not bear the title of agent22: (a) Company Directors and other company officials – being an artificial person, a company has to act through human agents. Then authority to act as company agents is vested in the board of directors. This authority may be delegated to one or more executive directors by the articles of the company to allow him to manage the day-to-day operations of the company. (b) Partnerships – as a partnership has no separate legal identity from its members, every partner in a firm is an agent of the firm as well as all other partners for the purpose of the business of the firm. Thus, a partner who performs an act for the purpose of carrying out the business of the firm, binds the firm as well as the other partners. (c) Employees – may be servants working under a contract of service or an independent contractor working under a contract for services. An employee e.g. a shop assistant is the agent of the shop owner for the purposes of making a contract of sale for the owner. He has the authority to make statements about goods that are binding on the shop owner, his employer. (d) Professionals – acting on behalf of clients may be the agents of those clients. E.g. a lawyer conducting litigation is his client’s agent and may have authority to settle the case and that settlement will bind the client. Thus the lawyer, not the client, normally signs a consent judgment. Similarly, an accountant’s agreement or statement to ZRA will bind his client in accordance with agency principles. The relationship between principal and agent depends on consent. If withdrawn, the agency will automatically end, as well as the agent’s actual authority to bind the principal. An agency relationship may be terminated in the following ways: (a) By mutual consent between the agent and the principal. (b) By either party unilaterally withdrawing consent. (c) An agent may have been appointed for a fixed period of time or for a specific task or set of tasks. Once the time elapses or the task(s) is/are completed the agency will terminate. (d) By operation of law e.g. if the  performance of the agency relationship becomes illegal (e.g. one party becomes the citizen of an alien enemy) or impossible (where it will be ended by the agency contract being frustrated). Death of either party will also terminate the agency and any contract made between them. If an agent becomes insane, the relationship is automatically terminated. The bankruptcy of either the agent or the principal will also end the agency.23 The Effect of Termination vis a vis Third Parties The agent may continue to have apparent authority even if actual authority has been terminated. If the principal’s conduct is such as to suggest to a third party that the agent continues to have authority. Until the principal brings the termination of the agent’s authority to the notice of a third party, the agent may continue to have apparent authority on the strength of the principal’s representation. DREW v NUNN24 the principal became insane but his wife, who was his agent, continued to act in his name. When he recovered from his insanity he tried to disclaim liability for acts done by his wife during his insanity/incapacity. Held: The agent i.e. his wife, had apparent authority and therefore he was bound. However, where an agent’s actual authority is terminated by the principal’s death or bankruptcy the agent will automatically cease to have apparent authority.